Beyond the Bad-Actor Framework: An Ecosystem Perspective on Human Trafficking in Bangladesh

Author: Ullah, Arif

Abstract: This article aims to examine the broader socioeconomic, gendered, and structural ecosystem that facilitates human trafficking in Bangladesh and survivors’ pathways to intermediary involvement. A total of 38 in-depth interviews with human trafficking survivors, academics, non-governmental organization (NGO) workers, and law enforcement officials were conducted to collect primary data. The analysis was performed following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step framework, which reveals that recruitment commonly occurs through relatives, neighbors, friends, brokers, and former migrants, which normalizes risky irregular migration. Although individuals exercise agency in deciding to migrate, their choices are constrained by poverty, debt, unemployment, family responsibilities, gendered vulnerability, and limited safe migration pathways. Agreement to migrate or work did not constitute consent to wage theft, confinement, sexual abuse, passport confiscation, debt bondage, or other exploitation. In addition, three provisional and potentially overlapping pathways toward possible intermediary involvement are identified: coercive pressure under continuing control or debt, post-return solicitation amid livelihood insecurity, and socially embedded migration referrals. These pathways describe circumstances, not proof of conduct, knowing participation, or culpability. The study connects trafficking ecosystems, constrained agency, and victim–intermediary overlap and supports survivor-centered and case-specific responses relevant to Sustainable Development Goals 5, 8.7, and 16.

Keywords: Bangladesh, constrained agency, ecosystem, human trafficking, role transition