Exploiting Moroccan Migrant Labor in Agriculture: Illustration of the Continuum from Smuggling to Trafficking

Author: Lavaud-Legendre, Bénédicte

Abstract: This paper describes the illegal practice of selling seasonal agricultural work contracts to Moroccan individuals in order for them to obtain residence permits in France. In many cases, such contracts are accompanied by the exploitation of these migrants in the agricultural sector after they arrive. In addition to offenses relating to migration fraud, these practices may be classified as subjection to unfit working conditions and accommodation, forced labor or even human trafficking. Based on research carried out between 2018 and 2022 using documents from criminal proceedings, this paper describes these criminal practices and identifies the underlying factors: manipulation of the law for illegal purposes and involvement of individuals regarded as “respectable” in the country of origin and identified as “persons of trust.” After describing the strategies implemented and the typical profiles of the individuals involved, the paper demonstrates the existence of a continuum between migrant smuggling and trafficking, from the perspective of criminal practices. This continuum results in particular from the close links between the legal and criminal factors that contribute to the establishment of exploitative relationships in these contexts. It also stems from the involvement of those engaged in this activity in both the formal and informal economies.

Keywords: agriculture, criminal activity, exploitation, forced labor, human smuggling, illegal migration, migrant worker, trafficking in human beings, working and living conditions